By Muhammad Ilyas Bhatti

Date:02-07-06

Source: Dawn

This book is the history of the ancient Gandhara civilisation. It carries a number of photographs of the monumental remains discovered at Taxila

The city of Takshasila or Taxila, as the Greeks had named it, is situated about 32km north-west of Islamabad, capital of Pakistan, and close beside the railway station of Taxila. Takshasila lies at the head of Sindh Sagar Doab between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers ...

Taxila`s history is legendry in Indian literature. The Ramayana, tells that it was founded at the same time as Pushkalavati, (present Charsada in NWFP) in Gandhara by Bharata, the younger brother of Rama, who appointed two of his sons as rulers in the two cities: Taksha in Takshasila (Taxila) and Pushkala in Pushkalavati. The Mahabharata relates that the city was conquered by King Janmejaya of Hastinapura. In Buddhist literature, Taxila is often referred to as a seat of learning and the home of world famous teachers. According to Jains, Taxila was visited by saint Rishabha around the sixth century BC.

Excavations carried out by Sir John Marshall disclosed that the earliest of the remains uncovered at the site go back no further than the sixth century BC or thereabout. During the Achaemenid empire, Darius I (circa 518BC) included Sindh and Eastern Punjab in his empire. The rule of the Achaemenid dynasty lasted some four generations until the reign of Artaxerxes II (404-359BC). The medium adopted for official communications throughout the Persian Empire was Aramaic, evidence of which at Taxila is furnished by an Aramaic inscription of the mid third century BC found in Sirkap. It was from the Aramaic script that the local Kharoshthi, commonly employed in the North-West until the fifth century AD was derived.

Alexander the Great descended on the Punjab in the spring of 326BC. He came to assert his claim to the old provinces of the Achaemenid empire. At the time of his invasion the North-West was divided into a number of independent states, like Takshasila (Taxila). Ambhi (Omphis or Taxiles), the king of Taxila, was already at war with the Paurava king (Porus) beyond the Jhelum. Raja Ambhi decided to ally himself with Alexander against his ancient rival, King Porus. As soon as Alexander reached Taxila, Ambhi lost no time in surrendering his kingdom into his hands. Alexander spent a few days at Taxila and then marched eastwards to attack Porus with 5,000 troops given to him by Raja Ambhi. He appointed Philip as satrap at Taxila with a garrison.

The Greek garrison in the Punjab did not survive for long. Philip was assassinated in 324BC and Raja Ambhi was declared the ruler of Taxila by Alexander, until a successor could be appointed. That appointment, however, was never made; Alexander died in 323BC and the whole outlook changed. After Alexander’s death, the troops which remained in Punjab were soon to be driven out or destroyed by Chandragupta. Though the Greeks who accompanied Alexander had much to say about India in general, they had little to say about Taxila in particular. They noticed the prevalence of polygamy and widow-burning (Sati) and the custom by which girls too poor to be provided with a marriage dowry were exposed for sale in the market-place.

Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Mauryian empire, had established himself so firmly in the Punjab that when, in 306 or 305BC, Seleucus Nicatar crossed the Indus in an endeavour to recover the Indian provinces of Alexander the Great, he found the Maurya king confronting him in such formidable force that he was constrained to make peace on terms which appear, prima facie, to have been wholly in favour of the Indian ruler.

Under those terms. Seleucus not only acknowledged Chandragupta’s sovereignty over the Punjab and Gandhara, he also ceded to him parts of Arachosia and Gedrosia, while he himself received only 500 elephants in return. This treaty was sealed by a matrimonial alliance between the two royal houses — Seleucus giving a daughter or niece to Chandragupta or, possibly, to his son Bindusara.

Asoka, afterwards, ruled as viceroy of Taxila on behalf of his father Bindusara and in the succeeding generation Kunala ruled on behalf of Asoka. That the Maurya administration was a highly organised one is clear from the detailed account of it given in the Arthasastra of Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta, who was responsible for placing him on the throne of Magadha.

Little is known about Bindusara, the son and successor of Chandragupta, except for the fact that he maintained the amicable relation established by his father with Seleucus I, and that he dealt with a rebellion at Taxila. However, he earned the title of Amitraghata, Slayer of Foes, and after a reign of 25 years he was succeeded by his son Asoka. His methods of administration were much the same as those followed by Chandragupta, and were continued until the year 272BC. For the first 12 years of his reign Asoka had probably been a Hindu by faith and worshipper of the non-Aryan Siva, but after his conquest of Kalinga (circa 262BC), he converted to Buddhism, which was quickly to become the dominant religion of the whole Maurya empire and of Ceylon. From then on until his death (circa 232BC) he devoted himself to propagate the blessings of his new faith among his subjects and in hands beyond his borders.

Among the monuments founded by Asoka at Taxila was the great Dharmarajika stupa. Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim who visited this area in the seventh century AD, tells us that in his day there were a thousand monasteries or thereabouts (many half ruined) in Gandhara alone, and not less than 1,400 in Udyana. At Taxila the number must have been as great. The great majority of these monuments date from the first five centuries of the Christian era, and none of those now visible are as early as the Maurya kings.

According to Tibetan tradition, Asoka died at Taxila and was succeeded by his son Dasaratha. The name of the prince Kunala is perpetuated at Taxila by a commemoration stupa which, Hiuen Tsang tells us, was erected to mark the spot where the young prince had his eyes put out through the evil machinations of his step mother.

In spite of the harsh character of Chandragupta’s rule, much was done by him and his successors for the economic welfare of the people. Lands were surveyed and agriculture aided by the construction of canals, reservoirs and wells, weights and measures were standardised and coinage was issued from the royal mints, which must greatly have facilitated trade and commerce between different parts of the empire. The Maurya coinage consisted of silver and copper “punch marked” pieces known respectively as Karshapana.

After Asoka’s death the disintegration of the Mauryan Empire started. As Gandhara was far away from Pataliputra, it soon achieved its independence. But it was invaded by the Greeks from Bactria who were settled there by Alexander. It is known as Bulkh area in Afghanistan. It was a stronghold of Hellenic culture, a military aristocracy.

Bactria gained independence under Diodotus in 250BC and then came Euthydemus on the throne. His son Demetrius pushed south of the Hindukush, conquering Kapisa and Gandhara. The coins discovered in this region reveal the names of 39 Greek kings and three queens. Their entire history can be traced with the help of their coins. Their rule lasted for about two hundred years in the Kabul Valley and Gandhara.

Menander was the most important Greek king of Gandhara. He led an expedition against Pushyamitra, who had murdered Brihadratha, the last Mauryan ruler, and laid the foundation of the Sunga dynasty. The Gandharan forces under Menander advanced towards Pataliputra, the capital of the Sungas. He issued a large variety of coins in gold, silver and copper. He was perhaps converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, the Buddhist monk. An interesting Kharoshti inscription, known as the Bajaur casket inscription of the reign of Menander, mentions the corporeal relic of the Buddha. Hermaeus, the last Greek ruler who held sway in Kapisa, was overthrown by the Parthian ruler Azes. Hereafter we hear no more of the Greek rule in this region. The remaining Greeks must have been absorbed in the local population.

The Scythians were a nomadic and war-like Central Asian people who moved from one place to another with their horses. They entered this region probably via Gilgit and took possession of it from the Greeks. The most important ruler of this dynasty in the first century BC was Maues. The Scythians ruled for a long time after him and introduced many new forms in art and architecture.

The Parthian overthrew the Scythians and became the masters. One of their rulers was Gondophares, whose inscription was recovered from Takht-i-Bahi in Mardan district. This inscription mentions the 26th year of his reign in the year 103 of an unknown era.

The Kushanas, a branch of the Yue-chi tribe, were nomadic people who were driven out of the Kansu province in north-west China. The most famous of the Kushana rulers was Kanishka, the successor of Vima Kadphises, who made Peshawar his winter capital. Under him, the region enjoyed its greatest prosperity and the art reached its climax. He had a great fascination for Buddhism and it is in his coins that the figure of the Buddha appears for the first time. He ascended the throne in about 78AD and ruled his vast empire for 21 years.

The last ruler of the Kushana dynasty was Vasudeva. According to the Naqsh-i-Rustam inscription, Shapur I, the Sassanian Emperor, conquered Peshawar. The last known date of Vasudeva is the (Kanishka) year 98. With him closes the chapter of the Great Kushanas coming to power and ruling for a considerable time.

After Vasudeva came other rulers whose dates are disputed. They were the later Kushanas or Kidara Kushanas, known as Shahis. They accepted the over lordship of the Sassanians who ruled here up to the time of Shapur II (309-79AD). The son of Kidara, who tried to overthrow the yoke of the Sassanian rule, was defeated by Shapur III. The Sassanian rule also came to an end after some time.

In the fifth century AD, the Ephthalites or White Huns, a barbaric people from Central Asia under the leadership of Toramana, trampled Taxila and carried fire and sword wherever they went. The destruction of the Buddhist establishments is generally attributed to them. Taxila never recovered from their onslaught. Sung-Yun, the Chinese pilgrim, visited the region in 520AD when the Huns were in power. Then the Hindushahiyya kings of Hund appeared on the scene.

According to Hiuen Tsang, who visited this area in the seventh century AD, in Taxila there were no traces of the old Kushana rulers. Petty nobles fought each other for local power, while the area as a whole was ruled from Kashmir. The people of the Taxila area were still Buddhists and their priests followed the Greater Vehicle.


Excerpted with permission from
Taxila, an Ancient Metropolis of Gandhara
By Muhammad Ilyas Bhatti
Umar Zirgham Publishing, Abdullah House, Jinnah Colony,
Liaquat Road, Wazirabad
Tel: 0333-4247889.
Email: ilyas_bhatti@hotmail.com
ISBN 969-8570-01-2
120pp. Rs850